Archaeological identification of fragmented nuts and fruits from key Asia?Pacific economic tree species using anatomical criteria: Comparative analysis of <i>Canarium</i> , <i>Pandanus</i> and <i>Terminalia</i>

The fats, protein and carbohydrates afforded by tree nuts fruits are key resources for communities from Southeast Asia, through Melanesia, Australia across Oceania. They important in long-distance marine trade networks, large-scale ceremonial gatherings, core a wide range of subsistence economies, including foraging systems, horticulture swidden agriculture. Recent archaeobotanical evidence has also shown their deep-time importance, being amongst the earliest foods used colonisation novel environments New Guinea, as well later Near Remote methods to identify fruit nut-derived plant macrofossils have been largely limited use morphological characters near whole or exceptionally preserved remains, most commonly endocarps, hard, nutshell-like interior layer protecting seed. Here we detail how anatomical characteristics visible light scanning electron microscopy (SEM), can be with surviving features confidently Asia-Pacific economic trees, this case, Canarium, Pandanus Terminalia. Systematic description allows identification these taxa, separation remains others such Aleurites Cocos, when found archaeological assemblages. This includes often highly fragmented charred assemblages that recovered routinely sites appropriate fine-sieving flotation methods. These provide basis more representative nuanced understanding ancient use, economy social systems operating region and, particularly useful tropical regions, will broaden database on globally. Les graisses, les protéines et glucides fournis par noix sont des ressources essentielles pour communautés d'Asie du Sud-Est, de Mélanésie, d'Australie d'Océanie. Ils importants dans réseaux commerciaux maritimes à longue distance, rassemblements cérémoniels grande échelle un large éventail d'économies subsistance, y compris systèmes recherche nourriture, l'horticulture l'agriculture itinérante. Des preuves archéobotaniques récentes ont également montré leur importance le temps, étant parmi premiers aliments utilisés la nouveaux environnements en Australie Nouvelle-Guinée, ainsi que ultérieure l'Océanie proche lointaine. méthodes utilisées identifier macrofossiles plantes dérivées été largement limitées l'utilisation caractères morphologiques restes presque entiers ou exceptionnellement préservés, plus souvent endocarpes, couche intérieure dure forme coquille protégeant graine. Nous détaillons ici comment caractéristiques anatomiques visibles microscopie optique électronique balayage, peuvent être avec survivantes toute confiance principaux arbres économiques l'Asie-Pacifique, ce cas La anatomique systématique permet l'identification ces taxons séparation d'autres tels lorsqu'ils se trouvent une gamme d'assemblages archéologiques. Cela comprend calcinés très fragmentés qui récupérés façon routinière sur plupart appropriées tamisage fin flottation. Ces fournissent base d'une compréhension représentative nuancée anciennes, l'économie sociaux opérant région et, particulièrement utiles régions tropicales, élargiront données archéobotanique anciens l'échelle mondiale. research transformed our understandings varied global trajectories towards agriculture (Castillo al., 2018; Crowther 2016; Levis Shaw 2020). Suggestions rainforest provided an unviable long-term foragers proved incorrect several continents (Roberts 2017), Asia Sahul demonstrating unequivocally early humans adopted complex animal-based strategies lowland upland before 40,000 years ago (e.g., Barker 2007; Florin 2020; Summerhayes 2010; Veth 2017). A component early, indeed later, economies appears fruits, reliance proteins they provide. during human expansions (Latinis, 2000; Florin, 2021b; Kirch 1995); within food production agricultural Guinea highlands (Denham 2003, 2004), managed landscape Wet Tropics northeastern Queensland (Ferrier & Cosgrove, 2012; Roberts 2021), horticultural developed Oceania Pacific (Fairbairn, 2005; Kirch, 1989; Lentfer Torrence, 2007). Whilst historical some practices understood, detailed investigation arboricultural hindered lack systematic methodological into identifying macrofossils, economically exploited 2009; Fairbairn, Carah, 2018). In majority cases, is heavily dependent characteristics, shape, size physical form, well-preserved remains. An alternative approach maximises chances endocarp using tissue. Used successfully parenchymatous tissue underground storage organs (USOs; see 2020, 2022; Hather, 1994, 2000a) wood charcoals (Dotte-Sarout 2015), include type arrangement ground cells vascular tissues, cell contents present paper, explore potential three genera Terminalia, increasing promise over recent decades (Fairbairn Fairbairn 2014; Oliveira, 2008). We test finds Australia, its effectively past, not only Pacific, but Old World tropics Africa South Asia. Trees Oceania, seeds providing sources those predominately forager, monocultural polycultural (see Figure 1). large, plants persistent, woody stems. typically long-lived, extending generations (Kennedy, 2012, p. 6), spatially fixed inter-annual variations abundance (mast cycles). seeds, all derived reproductive parts sexual reproduction, namely fertilised ovules, which become – new generation awaiting growth held pericarp, tissues ovary (in ovules develop). pericarp vary widely size, structure, combination depending family (Figure 2; Simpson, 2019). Pericarp structure varies true nuts, toughened forms persistent shell, drupes, single seed surrounded inner (endocarp) fleshy outer (mesocarp exocarp), berry multiple embedded soft, pulpy edible pericarp. fruiting structures extent likely archaeologically, especially exposure fire, produce structurally 2, coloured black). While referred target paper do botanical sense, endocarps tough layer, called elsewhere "nut-a-likes" (Fuller 2022, Chapter 18). Canarium widespread genus about 100 sub-tropical trees Burseraceae, growing low middle elevation primary secondary forest Africa, Island Melanesia 3a distribution maps species; Leenhouts, 1956; Walter Sam, 2002; Weeks, species medium large-sized standing between ?15 m 50 height. Their trunks construction, canoe building manufacture wooden artefacts, resinous extract caulking canoes (Kennedy Clarke, 2004; Yen, 1996). drupaceous surrounding cavities/locules (Figures 1 4). most, all, varieties, one locule fertile (i.e., seed-producing), while other two remain immature sterile (Evans, 1999). Several considered domestic, cultivated polyculture farming Lebot 2008; 1991, 1995, 1996), indicum, crop showing commercial plantation (Carter Smith, main portion "nuts", high fat, ?70% (Pham, 2016, 334). seasonal (Walter 1999, pp. 125?130; northern Solomon Islands, seasonally leave hamlets live close harvest stands galip (C. indicum) (Kimmorley 1995 Spriggs, 1997, 56). smoked sealed bamboo tubes, kept four years, either sold cash support community feasts. were traded traditional exchange inshore islands north coast (Hogbin, 1970), process continues today. Some Melanesian species, decumanum salmonense, pulp. smaller australianum eaten snack foods, rather than local Aboriginal (Jones Meehan, 1989, 122). Philippines, pili nut (Canarium ovatum) commercially harvested primarily 2016). However, young shoots pulp latter after boiling oil extracted cooking soap manufacture. Further, fuel gardening mulches, resin fire-starter. diverse palm-like Pandanaceae thickened wood-like stem, thick aerial roots crown strap-shaped leaves 1g), mat basket 3b Stone, 1983). variable form habitat, up 5 height endemic highland reaching heights excess 15 m, stem may construction. compound known cephalia (singular cephalium 1e, 1f) comprised numerous keys phalanges. Depending consist carpel (plant ovary) tissue, fused structure. basic unit drupe, kernel Fruits predominantly single-seeded thus monodrupes 4c), consisting polydrupes 4d). parts, kernels large-seeded fat (Low, 42; Powell, 1976, 116) superior value coconut 2004). Exploitation where domestic karuka (Pandanus julianetii; 1f, 1g) relatives major components system, resource-poor higher altitudes, at above 2000 (Bourke, 1996, upper limit tuber-based cropping dietary source otherwise fat-poor environment. tectorius polydrupe coastal settings around planted amenity parks leisure areas. On driest atolls, less 900 mm annual rainfall, 20?30 floristic alongside coconut, (Bayliss-Smith, 1990, 59). varieties quite variable, viewed anything staple resource famine food. As kernels, soft many areas, sometimes additional processing roasting spiralis; Meehan 1978). oily monodrupe variety marita conoideus) related cooked make syrup-like Terminalia genus, composed nearly 300 distributed subtropics 3c Exell, 1954; 2002). small unique leaves: grouped terminus, tips, branches. Hence name. length ?1.5 cm 11 cm, largest okari (Terminalia kaernbachii) Two catappa T. kaernbachii, former both 1a, 1b). large-fruited inland forests tending wild planting villages Its raw Port Moresby regional markets dried sea almond (T. catappa), Sri Lanka 3c), occasionally product. Vanuatu, groceries 2002), Iwa island Marshall Bennett Group Bismarck Archipelago, prized variety, renowned soft-shelled via smoking exported nearby nuts. famous Kakadu plum ferdinandiana; 1a), flesh extremely levels ascorbic acid (Gorman demand Australian international nutritional antimicrobial properties, it grown plantations wild-harvested part Indigenous-owned agribusinesses. Endocarps record, demonstrate Pleistocene (Australia: Dilkes-Hall 2019; Guinea: 2006; 1990). At Madjedbebe, rockshelter Mirarr Country Alligator Rivers exploitation associated occupation, 65?53,000 (Florin particular, considerable labour expended extraction P. spiralis (a Australia; 1b) evidenced argued fat-content populations (Florin, Sahul's north, there consideration topic management, translocation Papua iwen (previously “Taip”) Ivane Valley, highlands, 49-43?30-26,000 BP. Those imply same labour-intensive seen however, contemporary anthropogenic vegetation burning presence waisted axes suggested indicative modification management 2010). Early reports excavations Manim valley notable decrease thickness time, was indicate domestication region, 6000 (Golsen Christensen, 1975, 24). extensive Donoghue (1988, 94) “visible change” drupes indicator (P. antarensis, brosimus iwen) therefore, different environments, domestication. Use c. 14,000 BP Sepik Valley (Yen, 262), soon Pamwak Manus (Fredricksen 1993). Alongside phytogeographical data, claims C. indicum Archipelago (Swadling Hide, 2005). event, possible cultivation easily predates appearance Lapita pottery, suggests cultivation-based prior expansion Austronesian speakers Melanesia. Matthews Gosden (1997), (1988) further similarities demonstrates system Indigenous arboriculture, predated influenced expansion. Much interest re-consideration counterclaims concerning suitability ecosystems gathering, emerging prehistoric complexity pathways Highland microfossil (starches, phytoliths pollen) deployed understand data confirm independent centre origin Kuk 8?4000 similar garden tree-based Waim (Shaw 2020) 4?5000 BP, developing earlier collection. Although relatively well-represented literature, prehistory based number finds. With exception authors 2022), published identifications few recorded criteria Donoghue, 1988; Hayes, 1992; Gosden, 1997; Yen McEldowney Swadling 1991), relied overall shape size) complete specimens fragments. anaerobic, water-logged conditions, allow uncharred unburnt macrobotanical persist record Table More excavated aerobic strata (partially burnt) cases charring preserves original material exposed produces brittle prone fragmentation deposition subsequent recovery. Fragmentation, combined preservation rates, reduces macrofossil imposed Asia-Pacific. Ambon Island, Indonesia Kimberley, Modern comparative develop reference specimens, specimen morphology (shape/size) anatomy (presence organisation tissues). individual case Pandanus, dissected analysed fresh states, burnt 400-500°C muffle furnace reducing conditions. genera, sub-species. Reference investigated narrow common taxa encountered All archaeobotany collection University Brisbane. For included australianum, harveyi indicum. spiralis, basedowii tectorius, brosimus, julianetti. catappa, carpentariae, ferdinandiana, grandiflora kaernbachii. Identification standard views sections produced fracturing specimens. here procedures orienting describing approaches adapted (Hather, 2000b; Hillman 1996; Correct orientation essential correct sectioning done landmarks, assigned proximal pole nut, end attached parent plant, usually marked clear circular abscission scar opposed distal pole, varying simple point to, shallow flanges. line poles longitudinal axis nut. Transverse section (TS, 4) fracture plane perpendicular running fruit) lateral margins. radial (RLS, surface axis. dimensions. addition, (S, view surface; I, studies RLS accompanied tangential (TLS), understood. utility studies. Specimens described views, taking account peculiarities morphology. Morphological high-powered (SEM). following transverse RLS, views: orientation; wall thickness; texture; pattern; inclusions; 2). Plant efficacy Charred probable legacy assemblages, collected fieldwork wet-sieving 2004 onwards authors. worked Doug references below). His identifications, made morphology, already identified could evaluate approach. modern underpinned efforts. came Yomining Complex (DGD) Lebang Tatale (DGW) Nissan (Spriggs, Dongan 1991) Seraba Ramu Recently floated wet-sieved Taora, Lachitu Watinglo (Sandaun Province, PNG; O'Connor 2011), Madjedbebe (Mirarr Country, Northern Territory, Clarkson Kosipe Mission (Ivane Central 2010) Mamatu region. examples selected illustrate method, fuller treatment site datasets elsewhere. samples, fragments separated samples assay low-powered microscopy. first task phase separate obvious charcoal endocarp, wood's distinctive observable three-dimensional 2000b). dominated once accounted for, easy matter, leaf vegetative parenchyma, palm seeds. Possible recognised dense thick-walled sclerenchyma, remnant curved walls, locules (seed cavities), attachment apex, surfaces (the surface) monocotyledons, longitudinally arranged bundles. Many survived even verifying fragment. Furthermore, allowed so understood relation always determined without features, unlike charcoals. Once oriented, subject reflected/incident microscopes, ?4-50× magnification dissecting microscopes models (?50-400× magnification) Z-Stack image merging technologies. SEM investigate